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Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is a form of computer-based learning which carries two important features: bidirectional learning and individualized learning. It is not a method. CALL materials are tools for learning. The focus of CALL is learning, and not teaching. CALL materials are used in teaching to facilitate the language learning process. It is a student-centered learning material, which promotes self-paced learning. Read more at the bottom....

Contents [hide] 1 Definition 2 Technologies used in CALL instruction 2.1 Software 2.2 Internet-based 3 History 4 CALL and computational linguistics 5 Theoretical basis for CALL instruction design 6 Role changes for teachers and students 6.1 Teachers 6.2 Students 7 Use of CALL for the four skills 8 Advantages of CALL 8.1 Motivation 8.2 Adapting learning to the student 8.3 Authenticity 8.4 Critical thinking skills 9 Problems and criticisms of CALL instruction 10 References 11 Further reading 12 Professional associations 13 Professional journals 13.1 Journals dedicated to CALL 13.2 Journals that regularly include CALL articles 14 See also 15 External links

[edit] Definition

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) originates from CAI (Computer-Assisted Instruction). The philosophy of CAI or CALL is that the lessons should allow the learners to learn on their own using structured and/or unstructured interactive lessons. These lessons carry 2 important features: bidirectional (interactive) learning and individualized learning. CALL is not a method. It is a tool that helps teachers to facilitate language learning process. CALL can be used to reinforce what has been learned in the classrooms. It can also be used as remedial to help learners with limited language proficiency.

Some people may call it a courseware, an educational computerized program. CALL is not a software in the sense that it is not an application program or a utility program. This basic definition will distinguish CALL from other software applications. Therefore, given the definition and features of CALL, word processing program, spreadsheet program, graphic presentation software such as PowerPoint, Internet (a general term) are not considered as CALL. Chat, e-mail, and forum cannot be categorized as CALL since they do not provide interactive learning materials and individualized learning. Interactive does not simply mean giving reaction to learners' input. Interactive in CALL means feedbacks are given after learners' inputs are assessed by the system to help learners improve their language competency, which may include language skills. In addition, interactive features in CALL ensure that learning process takes place when learners engage in the lessons. Well-programmed interactive CALL lessons will provide feedbacks in terms of scores, guidelines, and customized lessons that are suitable for individual learners to move on. The design of CALL lessons must take into considerations some language pedagogical principles which may be derived from learning theories (behaviorism, cognitive, and constructivism) and second language learning such as Krahshen's Monitor Theory.

Others may call CALL an approach to teaching and learning foreign languages whereby the computer and computer-based resources such as the Internet are used to present, reinforce and assess material to be learned. CALL can be made independent of the Internet. It can stand alone for example in a CDROM format. Depending on its design and objectives, it may include a substantial interactive element especially when CALL is integrated in web-based format. It may include the search for and the investigation of applications in language teaching and learning. [1] Except for self-study software, CALL is meant to supplement face-to-face language instruction, not replace it. [2]

CALL has also been known by several other terms such as technology-enhanced language learning (TELL), computer-assisted language instruction (CALI) and computer-aided language learning but the field is the same. [3] For further information see the ICT4LT website, especially Section 1 of Module 1.4, headed "What is CALL?": http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-4.htm

[edit] Technologies used in CALL instruction

The technologies used in CALL instruction generally fall into two categories, software and Internet-based activities.

[edit] Software

Programming software such as C++ and Visual Basic can be used to program CALL courseware. Usually, these programs are used by .

Authoring programs allow an instructor to program part or all of the content to be learned and program part or all of how the content is to be learned. Some examples of these programs include Hotpotatoes, WinCALIS, Clozemaster, Choicemaster and Multitester. With these, the format is pre-programmed and the instructor puts in the material. General authoring programs like Macromedia Director can be used to make an entire course; however, most teachers do not have the time or the technical ability to make use of such programs. [1]

A courseware used in a CALL environment can be designed specifically for foreign/second language learning or adapted for this purpose. Most language textbook publishers offer educational software of some sort, whether it is meant to support a paper textbook or to stand alone for self-study. [4]

Most programs designed for language learning are tutorials. These generally are drill programs that consist of a brief introduction plus a series of questions to which the learner responds and then the computer gives some kind of feedback. With these kinds of programs, the material to be learned may already be programmed in by the publisher, which is more common, or may allow the teacher to program in the material to be learned. Yet, there are also integrated CALL programs, especially web-based CALL programs that combine tutorials, exercises (interactive multimedia drill-practice lessons), tests, and language enrichment materials. In fact, the site, where multimedia CALL lessons are offered, may also include e-forum and chat for the language learners to extend their learning process in a more dynamic atmosphere.

[edit] Internet-based

The World Wide Web was launched in 1992 reaching the general public by 1993, opening up new possibilities in CALL. ^[1]

Internet activities vary considerably, from online versions of software (where the learner interacts with a networked computer), to computer-mediated communication (where the learner interacts with other people via the computer), to applications that combine these two elements.

Nowadays, websites that cater to foreign-language learners, especially those learning English, are so numerous and varied that it can be very difficult to determine where to begin. ^[2] There are even meta-sites dedicated to trying to give a starting point such as Dave’s ESL Café and LLRC Recommended Sources. Many of these websites are based on the drill-exercise format but some also include games such as Hangman. ^[1]

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has been around in one form or another since the 1960’s but only became widely available to the general public since the early 1990’s. CMC comes in two basic forms: asynchronous, such as email and forums, and synchronous, such as text chat, voice chat and audio- and video-conferencing (e.g. using Skype). With such facilities learners can communicate in the target language with other real speakers cheaply, 24 hours a day. Learners can communicate one-to-one or one-to-many as well as sharing audio and video files. Because of all this, CMC has had a considerable impact on language teaching. Special interest groups, such as the EUROCALL CMC SIG have been set up to further the use of CMC in language learning and teaching.

Internet applications which combine interaction with another computer as well as another person or people both derived from role playing games (RPGs), which are activities where participants become part of a story where they work together and/or work against each other. RPGs were originally played on paper with pencils and dice but since the 1990s nearly all RPGs have been computer-based, with the computer acting as a player and/or referee. RPG scenarios can be as simple as Crimson Room’s (http://www.fasco-csc.com/index_e.php) goal of escaping from a locked room, but more often the scenario is a quest or journey, where players become a fantasy character and must use their skills to obtain treasure and experience. Some popular online RPGs include: Fairyland (http://www.1010game.com/asp/downloadpage.asp), Runescape (http://www.runescape.com/) and the simply-titled Quest (http://www.questrpg.org/). In chat rooms, the purpose is basically just to talk, so usually all participants see is a blank screen with words on it. RPG programs, however, participants appear on the screen (usually as simple animated figures) and interact with landscapes and objects as well as text they, the computer or other participants wrote. Participation in an RPG mimics many real-world communicative situations, such as buying and selling as well as a few not-so-real ones such as casting spells. ^[3]

RPG’s first went online in the form of MUDs (Multi-User Dungeons), followed by MOOs (Multi-user dungeon, Object-Oriented). MUDs are purely textual environments, forcing the participant to imagine the visual components, and MOOs have some visual elements, however very simple and not animated. MOOs have been converted in education into virtual classroom and office space where teachers and students can interact one-to-one or all together as a class in real time. ^[4]

MOOs have now developed into visually elaborate three-dimensional virtual environments, Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs), which are also known as virtual worlds. Second Life is one of the fastest growing MUVEs on the Web, where hundreds of simultaneous users interact in this virtual world in which they adopt a chosen character or avatar. Second Life has parks, shops, schools, museums, islands and beaches, all designed and maintained by the virtual residents. It is also supported by an economy and a virtual currency. You can buy virtual land, build a virtual house and fill it with virtual furniture. If you want to look smart you can even buy virtual clothes.

In 2007 Second Life started to be used for foreign language tuition.^[5] Both Second Life and real life language educators have begun to use the virtual world for language tuition. English (as a foreign language) has gained a presence through several schools, including the British Council, which has focused on the Teen Grid. Spain’s language and cultural institute “Instituto Cervantes” has an island on Second Life. A list of educational projects (including some language schools) in Second Life can be found on the SimTeach site. The first major virtual conference on using Second Life in language learning and teaching (SLanguages) took place on one of the EduNation islands in June 2007. Other conferences followed and more are scheduled. Further information on the ICT4LT website (Section 14.2.1 of Module 1.5). SLanguages 2008 is the 2nd annual conference of language education using virtual worlds such as Second Life. SLanguages.net is the conferences's website.

[edit] History

CALL’s origins and development trace back to the 1960’s (Delcloque 2000). Since the early days CALL has developed into a symbiotic relationship between the development of technology and pedagogy.

Warschauer (1996) divided the development of CALL into three phases: Behavioristic CALL, Communicative CALL and Integrative CALL (Multimedia and the Internet)^[6]. Bax (2003) perceived the three phases as Restricted, Open and Integrated - and there have been several other attempts to categorize the history of CALL: see the ICT4LT website (Section 3 of Module 1.4).

Behavioristic CALL is defined by the then-dominant behavioristic theories of learning of Skinner as well as the technological limitations of computers from the 1960’s to the early 1980’s. Up to the late 1970’s, CALL was confined to universities where programs were developed on big mainframe computers, like the PLATO project, initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960. Because repeated exposure to material was considered to be beneficial or even essential, computers were considered ideal for this aspect of learning as the machines did not get bored or impatient with learners and the computer could present material to the student as his/her own pace and even adapt the drills to the level of the student. Hence, CALL programs of this era presented a stimulus to which the learner provided a response. At first, both could be done only through text. The computer would analyze errors and give feedback. More sophisticated programs would react to students’ mistakes by branching to help screens and remedial activities. While such programs and their underlying pedagogy still exist today, to a large part behavioristic approaches to language learning have been rejected and the increasing sophistication of computer technology has lead CALL to other possibilities.

Communicative CALL is based on the communicative approach that became prominent in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. In the communicative approach, the focus is on using the language rather than analysis of the language, teaching grammar implicitly. It also allowed for originality and flexibility in student output of language. It also correlates with the arrival of the PC, making computing much widely available resulting in a boom in the development of software for language learning. The first CALL software in this phase still provided skill practice but not in a drill format, for example, paced reading, text reconstruction and language games but computer remained the tutor. In this phase, however, computers provided context for students to use the language, such as asking for directions to a place. It also allowed for programs not designed for language learning, such as Sim City, Sleuth and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? to be used for language learning. However, criticisms of this approach include using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected manner for more marginal rather than the central aims of language teaching. It will usually taught skills such as reading and listening in a compartmentalized way, even if not in a drill fashion. Integrative/explorative CALL, starting from the 1990’s, tries to address these criticisms by integrating the teaching of language skills into tasks or projects to provide direction and coherence. It also coincides with the development of multimedia technology (providing text, graphics, sound and animation) as well as computer-mediated communication. CALL in this period saw a definitive shift of use of computer for drill and tutorial purposes (computer as a finite authoritative base for a specific task) to a medium for extending education beyond the classroom and reorganizing instruction. Multimedia CALL started with interactive laser videodiscs such as “Montevidisco” (Schneider & Bennion 1984) and “A la rencontre de Philippe” (Fuerstenberg 1993, all of which were simulations of situations where the learner played a key role. These programs later were transferred to CD-ROMs, and new RPGs such as Who is Oscar Lake? made their appearance in a range of different languages.

In multimedia programs, listening is combined with seeing, just like in the real world. Students also control the pace and the path of the interaction. Interaction is in the foreground but many CALL programs also provide links to explanations simultaneously. An example of this is Dustin’s simulation of a foreign student’s arrival in the USA. Programs like this led also to what is called explorative CALL.

More recent research in CALL has favored a learner-centered explorative approach, where students are encouraged to try different possible solutions to a problem, for example the use of concordance programs. This approach is also described as data-driven learning (DDL), a term coined by Tim Johns. See Module 2.4 at the ICT4LT site, Using concordance programs in the Modern Foreign Languages classroom: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod2-4.htm

[edit] CALL and computational linguistics

CALL and computational linguistics are separate but somewhat interdependent fields of study. The basic goal of computational linguistics is to “teach” computers to generate and comprehend grammatically-acceptable sentences… for purposes of translation and direct communication with computers where the computer understands and generates natural language. Computational linguistics takes the principles of theoretical linguistics with the aim of characterizing a language with computational applications in mind. ^[7]

A very simple example of computers understanding natural language in relation to second language learning is vocabulary drill exercises. The computer prompts the learner with a word on either the L1 or target language and the student responds with the corresponding word. The computer “understands” the input word by comparing it with a stored answer and gives feedback to the user. Cloze tests work on a similar principle, where the computer compares the words/phrases provided by the learner to a database of correct answers. ^[7]

On a superficial level, the core issue for humans and computers using language is the same; finding the best match between a given speech sound and it corresponding word string, then generating the correct and appropriate response. However, humans and machines process speech in fundamentally different ways. Humans use complex cognitive processes, taking into account variables such as social situations and rules while speech for a computer is simply a series of digital values to generate and parse language. ^{[7] [8]} For this reason, those involved in CALL from a computational linguistics perspective tend to be more optimistic about a computer’s ability to do error analysis and other pedagogical tasks than those who come into CALL via language teaching. ^[1]

The term Human Language Technologies is often used to describe some aspects of computational linguistics, having replaced the former term Language Engineering. There has been an upsurge of work in this area in recent years, especially with regard to machine translation and speech synthesis and speech analysis. The professional associations EUROCALL (Europe) and CALICO (USA) have special interest groups (SIGs), respectively devoted to Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Intelligent CALL (ICALL). See Module 3.5 at the ICT4LT website for further information: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod3-5.htm

[edit] Theoretical basis for CALL instruction design

Computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so dramatically that the majority of language teachers now think about the implications. Technology brings about changes in the teaching methodologies of foreign language unless they are used simply to automate fill-in-the-gap exercises. ^[2] The use of the computer in and of itself does not constitute a teaching method, but rather the computer forces pedagogy to think in new ways to exploit the computers benefits and work around its limitations. ^[6] To exploit computers’ potential we need language teaching specialists who can promote a complementary relationship between computer technology and appropriate pedagogic programs. ^[2]

A number of pedagogical approaches have developed in the computer age, including the communicative and integrative/experimentative approaches outlined above in the History of CALL. Others include constructivism, whole language theory and sociocultural theory although they are not exclusively theories of language learning. With constructivism, students are active participants in a task in which they “construct” new knowledge based on experience in order to incorporate new ideas into their already-established schema of knowledge. Whole language theory postulates that language learning (either native or second language) moves from the whole to the part; rather than building sub-skills like grammar to lead toward higher abilities like reading comprehension, whole language insists the opposite is the way we really learn to use language. Students learn grammar and other sub-skills by making intelligent guesses bases on the input they have experienced. It also promotes that the four skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) are interrelated. ^[9] Sociocultural theory states that learning is a process of becoming part of a desired community and learning that communities rules of behavior. ^[10]

What most of these approaches have in common is taking the central focus away from the teacher as conveyer of knowledge to giving students learning experiences that are as realistic as possible where they play a central role. Also, these approaches tend to emphasize fluency over accuracy to allow students to take risks in using more student-centered activities and to cooperate, rather than compete. ^[2] The computer provides opportunity for students to be less dependent on a teacher and have more freedom to experiment on their own with natural language is natural or semi-natural settings.

[edit] Role changes for teachers and students

[edit] Teachers

Although the integration of CALL into a foreign language program can lead to great anxiety among language teachers, ^[11] researchers consistently claim that CALL changes, sometimes radically, the role of the teacher but does not eliminate the need for a teacher altogether. Instead of handing down knowledge to students and being the center of students’ attention, teachers become guides as they construct the activities students are to do and help them as students complete the assigned tasks. In other words, instead of being directly involved in students’ constructions of the language, the teacher interacts with students primarily to facilitate difficulties in using the target language (grammar, vocabulary, etc.) as use the language to interact with the computer and/or other people. ^{[9] [2]}

Elimination of a strong teacher presence has been shown to lead to larger quantity and better quality of communication such as more fluidity, more use of complex sentences and more sharing of students’ personal selves. ^[9] However, teacher presence is still very important to students when doing CALL activities. Teachers should be familiar enough with the resources to be used to anticipate technical problems and limitations. ^[2] Students need the reassuring and motivating presence of a teacher in CALL environments. Not only are they needed during the initial learning curve, they are needed to conduct review sessions to reinforce what was learned. Encouraging students to participate and offering praise are deemed important by students. Most students report preferring to do work in a lab with a teacher’s or tutor’s presence rather than completely on their own. ^[9]

[edit] Students

Students, too, need to adjust their expectations of their participation in the class in order to use CALL effectively. Rather than passively absorbing information, learners must negotiate meaning and assimilate new information through interaction and collaboration with someone other than the teacher, be that person a classmate or someone outside of the classroom entirely. Learners must also learn to interpret new information and experiences on their own terms. However, because the use of technology redistributes teachers’ and classmates’ attentions, less-able students can become more active participants in the class because class interaction is not limited to that directed by the teacher. ^[9] Moreover more shy students can feel free in their own students'-centered environment. This will raise their self-esteem and their knowledge will be improving. If students are performing collaborative project they will do their best to perform it within set time limits.

[edit] Use of CALL for the four skills

A number of studies have been done concerning how the use of CALL affects the development of language learners’ four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). Most report significant gains in reading and listening and most CALL programs are geared toward these receptive skills because of the current state of computer technology. However, most reading and listening software is based on drills. ^[2] Gains in writing skills have not been as impressive as computers cannot assess this well. ^[9]

However, using current CALL technology, even with it current limitations, for the development of speaking abilities has gained much attention. There has been some success in using CALL, in particular computer-mediated communication, to help speaking skills closely linked to “communicative competence” (ability to engage in meaningful conversation in the target language) and provide controlled interactive speaking practice outside the classroom. ^[8] Using chat has been shown to help students routinize certain often-used expressions to promote the development of automatic structure that help develop speaking skills. This is true even if the chat is purely textual. The use of videoconferencing give not only immediacy when communicating with a real person but also visual cues, such as facial expressions, making such communication more authentic. ^[9]

However, when it comes to using the computer not as a medium of communication (with other people) but as something to interact with verbally in a direct manner, the current computer technology’s limitations are their clearest. Right now, there are two fairly successful applications of automatic speech recognition (ASR) (or speech processing technology) where the computer “understands” the spoken words of the learner. The first is pronunciation training. Learners read sentences on the screen and the computer gives feedback as to the accuracy of the utterance, usually in the form of visual sound waves. ^[8] The second is software where the learner speaks commands for the computer to do. However, speakers in these programs are limited to predetermined texts so that the computer will “understand” them. ^[2]

[edit] Advantages of CALL

[edit] Motivation

Generally speaking, the use of technology inside or outside the classroom tends to make the class more interesting. However, certain design issues affect just how interesting the particular tool creates motivation. ^[9] One way a program or activity can promote motivation in students is by personalizing information, for example by integrating the student’s name or familiar contexts as part of the program or task. Others include having animate objects on the screen, providing practice activities that incorporate challenges and curiosity and providing a context (real-world or fantasy) that is not directly language-oriented.

For example, a study comparing students who used “CornerStone” (a language arts development program) showed a significant increase in learning (compared to students not using the program) between two classes of English-immersion middle-school students in language arts. This is because CornerStone incorporate personalized information and challenging and imaginative exercises in a fantasy context. ^[12] Also, using a variety of multimedia components in one program or course has been shown to increase student interest and motivation. ^[9]

One quantifiable benefit to increased motivation is that students tend to spend more time on tasks when on the computer. More time is frequently cited as a factor in achievement. ^[9]

[edit] Adapting learning to the student

Computers can give a new role to teaching materials. Without computers, students cannot really influence the linear progression of the class content but computers can adapt to the student. ^[2] Adapting to the student usually means that the student controls the pace of the learning but also means that students can make choices in what and how to learn, skipping unnecessary items or doing remedial work on difficult concepts. Such control makes students feel more competent in their learning. ^[12] Students tend to prefer exercises where they have control over content, such as branching stories, adventures, puzzles or logic problems. With these, the computer has the role of providing attractive context for the use of language rather than directly providing the language the student needs. ^[2]

[edit] Authenticity

“Authenticity” in language learning means the opportunity to interact in one or more of the four skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) by using or producing texts meant for an audience in the target language, not the classroom. With real communication acts, rather than teacher-contrived ones, students feel empowered and less afraid to contact others. Students believe the learn faster and better with computer-mediated communication. ^[2] Also, students learn more about culture in such an environment. ^[9] In networked computer environments, students have a conscious feeling of being members of a real community. In situations where all are learners of a foreign language, there is also a feeling of equality. In these situations students feel less stressed and more confident in a language learning situation, in part because surface errors do not matter so much. This works best with synchronous CMC (e.g. chats) as there is immediate feedback but email exchanges have been shown to provide most of the same benefits in motivation and student affect. ^[2]

[edit] Critical thinking skills

Use of computer technology in classrooms is generally reported to improve self-concept and mastery of basic skills, more student-centered learning and engagement in the learning process, more active processing resulting in higher-order thinking skills and better recall, gain confidence in directing their own learning. This is true for both language and non-language classrooms. ^[9]

[edit] Problems and criticisms of CALL instruction

The impact of CALL in foreign language education has been modest. ^[8] Several reasons can be attributed to this.

The first is the limitations of the technology, both in its ability and availability. First of all, there is the problem with cost^[6] and the simple availability of technological resources such as the Internet (either non-existent as can be the case in many developing country or lack of bandwidth, as can be the case just about anywhere). ^[2] However, the limitations that current computer technology has can be problematic as well. While computer technology has improved greatly in the last three decades, demands placed on CALL have grown even more so. One major goal is to have computers with which students can have true, human-like interaction, esp. for speaking practice; however, the technology is far from that point. Not to mention that if the computer cannot evaluate a learner’s speech exactly, it is almost no use at all. ^[8][6]

However, most of the problems that appear in the literature on CALL have more to do with teacher expectations and apprehensions about what computers can do for the language learner and teacher. Teachers and administrators tend to either think computers are worthless or even harmful, or can do far more than they are really capable of. ^[11]

Reluctance on part of teachers can come from lack of understanding and even fear of technology. Often CALL is not implemented unless it is required even if training is offered to teachers. ^[11] One reason for this is that from the 1960’s to the 1980’s, computer technology was limited mostly for the sciences, creating a real and psychological distance for language teaching. ^[13] Language teachers can be more comfortable with textbooks because it is what they are used do, and there is the idea that the use of computers threatens traditional literacy skills since such are heavily tied to books. ^{[13] [14]} These stem in part because there is a significant generation gap between teachers (many of whom did not grow up with computer) and students (who did grow up with them).

Also, teachers may resist because CALL activities can be more difficult to evaluate than more traditional exercises. For example, most Mexican teachers feel strongly that a completed fill-in textbook “proves” learning. ^[14] While students seem may be motivated by exercises like branching stories, adventures, puzzles or logic, these activities provide little in the way of systematic evaluation of progress. ^[2]

Even teacher who may otherwise see benefits to CALL may be put off by the time and effort needed to implement it well. However, “seductive” the power of computing systems may be^[2], like with the introduction of the audio language lab in the 1960’s, those who simply expect results by purchasing expensive equipment are likely to be disappointed. ^[6] To begin with, there are the simple matters of sorting through the numerous resources that exist and getting students ready to use computer resources. With Internet sites alone, it can be very difficult to know where to begin, and if students are unfamiliar with the resource to be used, the teacher must take time to teach it. ^[2] Also, there is a lack of unified theoretical framework for designing and evaluating CALL systems as well as absence of conclusive empirical evidence for the pedagogical benefits of computers in language. ^[8] Most teachers lack the time or training to create CALL-based assignments, leading to reliance on commercially-published sources, whether such are pedagogically sound or not. ^[6]

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• See the ICT4LT Resource Centre for a select bibliography on CALL: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_resource.htm
• See also EUROCALL's CALL Bibliography. This is a comprehensive list of CALL publications, including other bibliographies on the Web.
• Anson Yang, (2006). Does an Open Forum Promote Learning Among Students? A Collaborative-Learning Approach. Asian EFL Journal Vol 7. [1]
• ATALL (Autonomous Computer-Assisted Language Learning) ATALL Wikibook. See also Littlemore J. (2001) Learner autonomy, self-instruction and new technologies in language learning: current theory and practice in higher education in Europe. In Chambers A. & Davies G. (eds.) ICT and language learning: a European perspective, Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger (now taken over by Taylor & Francis). David Little has also published widely on learner autonomy in the context of CALL, e.g. Little D. (1991) Learner autonomy: definitions, issues and problems, Dublin: Authentik http://www.authentik.com/
• Bax S. (2003) CALL - past, present and future, System 31: 13-28
• CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) journal, Taylor and Francis (formerly published by Swets & Zeitlinger): http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/
• Chapelle C. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: foundations for teaching, testing and research, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Cheon Heesook (2003) The viability of Computer Mediated Communication in the Korean secondary EFL classroom, The Asian EFL Journal Vol 5, 1: http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/march03.sub2.php
• Davies G. (1997) "Lessons from the past, lessons for the future: 20 years of CALL". In Korsvold A-K. & Rüschoff B. (eds.) New technologies in language learning and teaching, Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Also on the Web (revised 2007) at: http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/coegdd1.htm
• Davies G. (2007 - revised) "Computer Assisted Language Learning: Where are we now and where are we going?" http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/docs/UCALL_Keynote.htm
• Davies G., Bangs P., Frisby R. & Walton E. (2005) Setting up effective digital language laboratories and multimedia ICT suites for Modern Foreign Languages, London: CILT: http://www.languages-ict.org.uk/managing/digital_language_labs.pdf
• Delcloque P. (2000) History of CALL: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/History_of_CALL.pdf
• de Szendeffy J. (2005) A practical guide to using computers in language teaching, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• Egbert, J. & Petrie G. (eds) (2006). CALL Research Perspectives. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Egbert J. & Hanson-Smith E. (eds.) (1999) CALL environments: research, practice and critical issues, Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
• Felix U. (2001) Beyond Babel: language learning online, Melbourne: Language Australia.
• Fitzpatrick A. & Davies G. (eds.) (2003) "The Impact of Information and Communications Technologies on the Teaching of Foreign Languages and on the Role of Teachers of Foreign Languages". This is a comprehensive report commissioned by the EC Directorate General of Education and Culture.
• Fotos S. & Browne C. (eds.) (2004) New perspectives on CALL for second language classrooms, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Hubbard, P. (2003). "A Survey of Unanswered Questions in CALL." CALL Journal 16.2-3. See www.stanford.edu.~efs/callsurvey.
• Hubbard, P. (2005). "A Review of Subject Characteristics in CALL Research." CALL Journal 18.5.
• Hubbard, P. (2006). "A Review of Subject and Treatment Characteristics in CMC Research.“ Paper presented at PacSLRF Conference, Brisbane, Australia, July 2006. PP online at www.stanford.edu/~efs/pacslrf06.
• Hubbard, P. & Levy, M. (2005). Why call CALL "CALL"? Editorial. Computer Assisted Language Learning 18(3): 143-149.
• Jarvis H. (2005) Technology and change in English Language Teaching (ELT), The Asian EFL Journal Vol 7, 1: http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/December_05_hj.php
• Kessler, G. (2007). Formal and Informal CALL Preparation and Teacher Attitude Toward Technology. CALL Journal, Taylor & Francis: Antwerp.
• Kessler, G. (2006). Assessing CALL Teacher Training: What are We Doing and What Could We Do Better? In Hubbard, P. & Levy, M. Teacher education in CALL. John Benjamins: Amsterdam.
• Language Learning and Technology: A refereed journal for second and foreign language instructors: http://llt.msu.edu/
• Levy, M. & Stockwell, G. (2006). CALL Dimensions: Options and Issues in Computer-Assisted Language Learning. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Levy M. (1997) CALL: context and conceptualisation, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Liu, G. -Z. (2008). Innovating research topics in learning technology: Where are the new blue oceans?.British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 39, Issue 4, 10 pages.
• Liu, G.-Z. & Chen, A.S.W. (2007). A taxonomy of Internet-based technologies integrated in language curricula. British Journal of Educational Technology 38 (5), 934–938. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00728.x
• Mills, Jon (1997) "Virtual Classroom Management and Communicative Writing Pedagogy" Proceedings of 1996 European Writing Conferences: EARLI Special Interest Group Writing, Writing and Computers Association, University of Barcelona, 23-25 October 1996. Barcelona: Universitat de Barcelona, Universitat Autònima de Barcelona. CD-ROM. ISBN 84-88795-36X. http://www.geocities.com/f_j_mills/Virtual_Classroom_Management_and_Communicative_Writing_Pedagogy.PDF
• Piper A. (1986) "Conversation and the computer: a study of the conversational spin-off generated among learners of English as a Foreign Language working in groups", System 14, 2: 187-198.
• ReCALL: The Journal of EUROCALL, now published by Cambridge University Press - login at http://www.journals.cup.org/. Back numbers are available at: http://www.eurocall-languages.org/recall/r_online.html
• Son J.-B. (ed.) (2004) Computer Assisted Language Learning: concepts, contexts and practices, Lincoln, NE: iUniverse.
• Warschauer M. (1996) Computer-assisted language learning: an introduction. In Fotos S. (ed.) Multimedia language teaching, Tokyo: Logos International.
• Warschauer M. & Healey D. (1998) Computers and language learning: an overview, Language Teaching 31:57-71.
• Wenger E. (1998) Community of practice: learning as a social system. Relates more to business than education, but contains some interesting ideas on creating, organising and sharing knowledge.

[edit] Professional associations

• APACALL: Asia-Pacific Association for CALL.

• CALICO: US-based professional association devoted to CALL. Manages a regular annual conference.

• JALTCALL: Japan-based professional association devoted to CALL. Coordinates an annual conference and the JALTCALL Journal.

• PacCALL: Professional CALL association in the Pacific: from East to Southeast Asia, Oceania, across to the Americas.
• PacCALL Australia: Australian Chapter of the Pacific CALL Association. President Renata Chylinski.

• EUROCALL: Europe-based professional association devoted to CALL. Manages a regular annual conference.

• IALLT: US-based International Association for Language Learning Technology. IALLT is a professional organisation dedicated to promoting effective uses of media centres for language teaching, learning, and research. Manages regular conferences.

• Learning Technologies Special Interest Group The Learning Technologies Special Interest Group of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language. This UK-based group runs a variety of events and produces a regular newsletter.

• TESOL Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, CALL Interest Section.

• WorldCALL: A worldwide association devoted to CALL and embracing other leading professional associations. The WorldCALL 2008 conference will take place in Japan.

• SLaTE Speech and Language Technologies for Education

[edit] Professional journals

[edit] Journals dedicated to CALL

• CALICO Journal (Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium)
• Teaching English with Technology (IATEFL Poland)
• CALL-EJ On-line (Online Journal)
• Computer Assisted Language Learning: An International Journal (Taylor and Francis)
• CALL Review: the SIG Journal (The IATEFL Special Interest Group's Newsletter)
• IALLT Journal (International Association for Language Learning Technology)
• JALTCALL Journal (Japan Association of Language Teaching - Computer-Assisted Language Learning Special Interest Group)
• ON-CALL (Australia) Archives only - now incorporated into CALL-EJ: http://www.cltr.uq.edu.au/oncall/home.html
• Language Learning and Technology (Online Journal)
• ReCALL (European Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning)
• Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (Blackwell - Computer Assisted Learning in general rather than CALL)
• SLaTE
• AsiaCALL Online Journal (AsiaCALL OnlinJournal)

[edit] Journals that regularly include CALL articles

• British Journal of Educational Technology
• System

• Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching

[edit] See also

• Autonomous Technology-Assisted Language Learning (ATALL) Wikibook
• List of Educational Software
• Intelligent computer-assisted language instruction (ICALI)
• Electronic flashcards
• Memory
• Mnemonics
• Technology-Enhanced Learning

[edit] External links

• ICT4LT - A website containing an extensive set (16 modules, plus a glossary of terminology and a resource centre) of ICT training materials and information for teachers of foreign languages. The site was set up with the aid of European Union funding in 1999-2000 and is continually updated. Most materials are subject to a Creative Commons Licence.
• Langwidge - Various experiments on using software for language-learning.
• Languages ICT - Languages ICT Website: A website for people interested in ICT and languages, maintained by CILT and the Association for Language Learning.
• Graham Davies's Freestuff - Links to free materials and articles on CALL by Graham Davies, Emeritus Professor of Computer Assisted Language Learning.
• gradint a program for self-study of foreign languages (cross-platform; requires data to be added)
• Heavner a wiki like language learning system.
• Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Current Programs and Projects
• IngoLingo Language Learning Software A desktop application that teaches foreign words and sentences
• Word for Word